Exterior Cladding & Siding

Exterior Cladding & Siding

Use the red-to-green product guidance below to select safer product types by avoiding those in red and preferring yellow and green, which are safer for occupants, fenceline communities, and workers.

When choosing cladding and siding:

Professionals consider many variables when selecting cladding and siding materials for building exteriors. These include aesthetics, the substrate beneath the cladding or siding, and how to best protect a building from the elements. This guidance considers the exterior portion of the cladding or siding assembly (e.g. fiber cement, stucco, or vinyl) and additional system components that may not be found in other assemblies, such as lath, mortars, and coatings. It does not consider all materials included in the building envelope, such as sheathing, water resistive barriers, or insulation.[1]

While most cladding/siding options include chemical hazards, some product types have more hazards than others when considering their life cycle impacts. Several siding materials contain a large amount of plastic, made from petrochemicals which are derived from oil and natural gas.[2] Living in close proximity to oil and gas wells has been associated with numerous health impacts, including adverse pregnancy outcomes, cancer, exacerbation of asthma, and mental health issues.[3–6] Oil and gas wells are also disproportionately located near historically redlined communities with a high proportion of people of color, contributing to environmental injustices.[7–10] A growing body of research indicates that widespread plastic pollution, generated across the plastic life cycle, is impacting earth's ecosystems.[11,12] In addition, plastic can break down into small particles, often referred to as microplastics, in the environment. There is evidence demonstrating that these microplastics accumulate in people’s bodies and emerging research suggesting that they are connected to numerous adverse health outcomes.[13–16] In addition, data continues to emerge documenting building materials as a substantial contributor to environmental microplastic pollution.[17–20]  

Metal- and mineral-based products have fewer life cycle concerns, but can also expose people to hazardous chemicals, particularly during manufacturing.[21,22] Many of these products also have concerns during installation. For instance, mixing powdered products or cutting products during installation can expose installation teams to dust hazards. All products will generate some dust when cut, and some types of dust, such as wood dust and respirable crystalline silica, are known to be carcinogenic.[23–27]

Service life is another consideration for cladding and siding rankings.[28–33] For example, most plastic products have a shorter service life than other materials, meaning they must be replaced more frequently creating additional manufacturing, installation, and end of life impacts over the life of a building, compared to other materials.

As noted above, this guidance does not cover every component of cladding systems. Some of these components, such as insulation and sealants, have their own product guidance that should be consulted alongside this guidance.

Below is more detailed guidance to use when choosing cladding and siding materials:

  • Prefer plant-based materials (wood, cork), and mineral-based materials (stone, terra cotta, brick, ceramic, plaster/stucco), or certain metals. These tend to have the fewest chemical impacts across their life cycle.
  • Avoid plastic products (vinyl/PVC, phenolic, polypropylene/polymeric, polycarbonate, polyurethane). They tend to have the most chemical impacts across their life cycle, and can contribute to microplastic pollution.[11,35]
  • If mortar is specified, identify opportunities to reduce or eliminate its use. Mortar can expose installation teams to respirable crystalline silica, a carcinogen. It also contains portland cement, which has manufacturing processes known to release hazardous chemicals.[22] Opportunities to reduce the amount of mortar may include:
    • Mechanically anchored installations of materials like modular brick, concrete masonry unit (CMU veneer), and stone
    • Preferring thinset over thickset
  • Pay attention to coatings and finishes.
    • Avoid PVDF and other fluoropolymer coatings. These contain per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS), commonly known as “forever chemicals”
    • Prefer water-based coatings over solvent- or oil-based coatings. Solvent-based coatings tend to have more life cycle hazards than water-based coatings
    • Prefer mineral silicate and lime-based paints where they can be used. These have fewer hazards than solvent-based and acrylic/latex paints
    • Avoid anti-graffiti coatings, which can contain PFAS.
    • Avoid sealing stone and portland-cement based products with oil-repelling sealers. Oil-repelling sealers used on stone and portland-cement based products typically contain PFAS

Expanded cork board is produced using granulated bark from the cork oak tree which is compressed with steam until the granules swell and hold together to form slabs.[36] Expanded cork board cladding is not expected to contain any hazardous content and its life cycle impacts are expected to be minimal relative to other types of siding and cladding. While a preferred product type, it may not be widely available, requiring advanced planning to allow for its use.

Within this type prefer: Mechanical installations to avoid additional hazards that may be introduced by using adhesives.

Terracotta cladding is a fired clay product similar to clay bricks.[37–40] While similar in composition to brick, typically it is mechanically installed using metal bars or brackets, or with mechanical fasteners such as nails or metal rails. As a result, this type of cladding avoids the additional life cycle impacts and hazards associated with portland-cement based thinset and thickset installations. Ceramic cladding is very similar to terra cotta and is expected to have similar life cycle impacts when mechanically installed.

Aluminum siding is made from extruded aluminum alloy, a relatively low-hazard material that is commonly recycled, so products may contain a high amount of recycled aluminum.[41,42] A common type of aluminum siding that avoids fluoropolymer coatings is anodized aluminum. The anodization process creates a coating that is relatively low-hazard compared to other types of protective coatings. While the life cycle impacts of anodized aluminum are low relative to other types of siding and cladding, occupational exposures during aluminum production are considered carcinogenic to humans, which is a concern for workers during manufacturing.[43]

Within this type watch out for: Aluminum siding and cladding with chromate pretreatments and PVDF coatings, which are ranked red in this product guidance. Also avoid products with PVC topcoats.[41] PVC or “vinyl” is not a preferred material because of the toxic processes required to make the plastic and the toxic pollution created when it is disposed of.[44–46]

Steel siding is also a relatively low-hazard material that is commonly recycled, so products may contain a high amount of recycled steel.[42,47] Corrosion inhibitors for steel that avoid fluoropolymers include galvanized coatings and other coatings made from zinc and aluminum.[48,49] Similar to aluminum, occupational exposures during iron and steel founding are also considered carcinogenic to humans.[50]

Within this type watch out for: Steel siding and cladding with chromate pretreatments and PVDF coatings, which are ranked red in this product guidance.

Natural wood can be used for exterior siding, shingles, shakes, and shiplap. These can be installed unfinished, but manufacturers typically recommend coating them to protect the wood from moisture, UV degradation, and mildew. Finishes include water repellents, preservatives, bleaching oils and stains, or paints and primers; while the wood itself is low-hazard, these coatings contain hazards. In general, even with coatings, wood is still one of the lowest-hazard siding options across the life cycle. See our Paint Product Guidance for more information on some types of coatings that can be used on wood. 

Exterior wood products may be made from a variety of species of pine, cedar, and other types of wood. Several manufacturers now offer thermally modified wood products, which use heat and steam to modify wood that is otherwise not typically suitable for exterior use.[51–53]  The wood itself is marketed as having no chemical additives. While some manufacturers indicate that products can remain unfinished in order to achieve an aged silver look, some still recommend finishing the wood in these instances to prevent uneven aging.[54–58] As noted above, these finishes can add additional hazards.

While wood is generally a healthy material, there are some notable health concerns across the product life cycle. Wood dust that is generated during product cutting is a carcinogen, which is a concern for workers and installation teams.[23,24] In addition, some exterior wood products are pressure-treated to prevent decay. While most pressure-treated wood for residential use has transitioned away from chromated copper arsenate (CCA), some products, such as shingles that can be used for roofing or siding, can still contain it.[59–62] CCA is carcinogenic and has a number of additional health hazards.[63] While not common in wood used for siding, products using CCA are available and should always be avoided.

Within this type watch out for: Wood that is pressure treated with chromated copper arsenate (CCA), which is not a recommended product type.

Natural stone can be installed as either a full veneer that is 3 to 5 inches thick, or a thin veneer that is 3/4 to 1-1/2 inches thick. A variety of different types of stones can be used and are relatively low-hazard. Natural stone veneer is typically installed with mortar and grout. Because common mortars and grouts are based on portland cement, there is potential for workers to be exposed to respirable crystalline silica, a carcinogen, while these materials are being mixed.[25–27] In addition, fuel-related and process-related emissions from portland cement manufacture can expose fenceline communities to toxic chemicals, including mercury.[22]

Within this type watch out for: Stone sealers. Sealing stone is not necessary, but some products are available that advertise color enhancement and stain protection. Sealers commonly used on stone and portland-cement based products can add additional chemical hazards. When these products are advertised as oil-repelling, they typically include PFAS. PFAS are a high priority to avoid as many are persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic.[64]

Within this type prefer: Thin stone veneers that are mechanically installed or installed with thinset to reduce the amount of material required for both the stone and mortar, reducing the life cycle impacts from these materials. Thickset requires more portland cement than thinset installations, amplifying the life cycle impacts of portland cement over a given surface area of a building.

Brick is composed of surface clays, shales, and fire clays that are mixed with water, formed into brick, dried, and kiln-fired at temperatures up to 2400°F. Installation varies depending on the substrate, but it typically requires the use of traditional portland cement mortars, polymer-modified cement mortars, or adhesives. Because common mortars are based on portland cement, there is potential for workers to be exposed to respirable crystalline silica, a carcinogen, while these materials are being mixed.[25–27] In addition, fuel- and process-related emissions from portland cement manufacture can expose fenceline communities to toxic chemicals, including mercury.[22]

Within this type watch out for: Anti-graffiti coatings. These coatings may be sacrificial (designed to be removed) or barrier (designed to stay on the surface).[65] Some are known to contain PFAS.[66] PFAS are a high priority to avoid as many are persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic.[64]

Within this type prefer: Thin brick veneers installed with thinset to reduce the amount of material required for both brick and mortar, reducing the life cycle impacts from these materials. Thickset requires more portland cement than thinset installations, amplifying the life cycle impacts of portland cement over a given surface area of a building. Modular brick has more impacts than thin brick because it is several times thicker (3-5/8 inches thick versus 1/2 to 1 inch thick).

Ceramic tile is chemically very similar to brick, so it is expected to have similar life cycle impacts to thin brick. It can be either mechanically anchored or adhered with mortar and grout.[40,67–69] Because common mortars are based on portland cement, there is potential for workers installing ceramic tile with mortar to be exposed to respirable crystalline silica, a carcinogen, while the mortar is being mixed.[25–27] In addition, fuel- and process-related emissions from portland cement manufacture can expose fenceline communities to toxic chemicals, including mercury.[22]

While not expected to be common in tiles manufactured in the U.S., some ceramic tiles may contain lead, a PBT with cancer, developmental, and reproductive hazards.[70,71] In the past lead has been found in certain glazes and in post-consumer recycled content from cathode ray tubes (CRTs).

Within this type watch out for: Products with added lead, either from glazes or recycled content. Accessories used with ceramic tiles can also introduce chemicals of concern. Avoid using epoxy grouts and avoid sealers that contain PFAS — these sealers are typically advertised as “oil-repelling.”

Within this type prefer: Mechanically installed ceramic/terracotta tiles or cladding, which are ranked light green in this guidance.

Prefabricated engineered stone panels may include products identified as concrete masonry unit (CMU) veneer, manufactured stone veneer (MSV), and adhered manufactured stone veneer (AMSV). These products are all based on portland cement, and can be attached using mortars and grout or mechanically anchored.[72–75] Since they are based on portland cement the panels themselves are expected to contain few health hazards during use. There is potential for exposure to respirable crystalline silica, a carcinogen, if they are cut during installation.[25–27] In addition, fuel-related and process-related emissions from portland cement manufacture can expose fenceline communities to toxic chemicals, including mercury.[22]

Within this type prefer: Products that are mechanically installed and avoid the use of mortars.

Engineered wood siding is made from wood particles or fibers and a small amount of binder. The binder is typically based on formaldehyde or isocyanates. Both binder types are manufactured using a number of hazardous chemicals that can impact workers and nearby communities. For example, some of the hazardous chemicals used include formaldehyde, a carcinogen, and isocyanates, which are respiratory sensitizers produced from many other hazardous chemicals, including several carcinogens.[76,77]

Similar to natural wood, engineered wood generates wood dust, a carcinogen, during cutting—a concern for manufacturing workers and installation teams.[23]

Wood or bamboo plastic composite materials are made from sawdust or wood/bamboo fiber and plastic. These materials are distinct from engineered wood siding, also sometimes referred to as “composite.” In contrast to engineered wood siding, which contains wood fibers and a small amount of resin, wood plastic composite products can be over 40% plastic by weight.[78–82]  

The plastic in wood plastic composite products is typically polyethylene, which is manufactured using fewer hazardous chemicals than many other plastics such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polycarbonate, but it is still made from petrochemicals (chemicals derived from oil or natural gas).[2,44] Oil and gas extraction and processing releases hazardous pollution that can have significant impacts on the health of people in surrounding communities and these polluting facilities are disproportionately sited in BIPOC and low-wealth communities, contributing to environmental injustice.[3–10]

The plastic in these products can originate from recycled materials such as plastic bottles and films.[78,79] Like virgin plastic products, recycled plastic products have life cycle concerns. These include the potential to release microplastics throughout their life and other end of life impacts.[35,83]

Within this product type prefer: Recycled polyethylene to reduce the impacts of petroleum extraction and refining.

Fiber cement siding is similar in composition to other cementitious materials. It is composed of a mixture of portland cement, sand, water, cellulose reinforcing fibers, and additives. Since these products are based on portland cement they are expected to contain few health hazards but some additives are not well disclosed. There is potential for exposure to respirable silica dust, a carcinogen, when these products are cut during installation.[25–27] In addition, fuel- and process-related emissions from portland cement manufacture can expose fenceline communities to toxic chemicals, including mercury.[22]

Lime plasters are mostly composed of lime (hydraulic, non-hydraulic, or a mixture of both types), mineral aggregate, and water. While the cured products are low-hazard, lime plasters are typically supplied as powders mixed on-site and there is potential for worker exposure to respirable crystalline silica, a carcinogen.[25–27] Emissions data that manufacturers are required to report to the U.S. EPA also reveals some hazardous emissions such as lead from facilities that produce lime.[84]

Cement board stucco systems vary but typically contain a portland-cement based backerboard to which a latex-portland cement thinset base coat is applied. A fiberglass mesh is embedded in the thinset, and then a finish coat of acrylic plaster is applied. 

There is potential for workers to be exposed to respirable crystalline silica, a carcinogen, when thinset is mixed and when backerboards are cut during installation. [25–27] Moreover, fuel- and process-related emissions from portland cement manufacture can expose fenceline communities to toxic chemicals, including mercury.[22]

Alkali-resistant fiberglass scrims can be coated in PVC containing orthophthalate plasticizers. PVC or “vinyl” is not a preferred material because of the toxic processes required to make the plastic and the toxic pollution created when it is disposed of.[44–46] For these reasons it ranks among the worst types of plastic and should be avoided where possible. Orthophthalates are a concern because they are endocrine-disrupting chemicals that can mimic hormones and consequently are associated with numerous health effects.[85] These chemicals represent a small portion of the overall cement board stucco system but should be avoided when possible.

Traditional portland-cement based stucco is applied in two or three coats. Similar to other portland-cement based products that are mixed on-site, there is potential for exposure to respirable crystalline silica, a carcinogen, while each coat is mixed.[25–27] In addition, fuel- and process-related emissions from portland cement manufacture can expose fenceline communities to toxic chemicals, including mercury.[22]

Within this type watch out for: One-coat stucco systems applied over foam insulation. Foam insulation products are not recommended product types. See the Insulation Product Guidance for more details. 

Polypropylene siding, sometimes referred to as polymeric siding or polymer siding, is mostly polypropylene with calcium carbonate filler, pigments, antioxidants, and stabilizers.[86,87] It is available in different formats including shakes and stone/brick look, and may be called polymer faux stone siding. Polypropylene, like the polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in vinyl siding, is plastic, but the chemicals used to make it are less hazardous than those used to manufacture PVC. However, it is still made from petrochemicals (chemicals derived from oil or natural gas). Oil and gas extraction and processing release hazardous pollution that can have significant impacts on the health of people in surrounding communities, and these polluting facilities are disproportionately sited in BIPOC and low-wealth communities, contributing to environmental injustice.[3–10]

Additionally, because polypropylene is plastic, there is potential for it to release microplastics into the environment at all life cycle stages.[35,83] Microplastics are a concern because there is evidence demonstrating that they accumulate in people’s bodies and emerging research connecting them with adverse health outcomes.[13-16,88] A growing body of research demonstrates that widespread plastic pollution, generated across the plastic life cycle, is impacting earth's ecosystems.[11,12]

Within this type watch out for: Products coated with fluoropolymer coatings, such as PVDF.[89]

Fluoropolymer coatings such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and fluoroethylene vinyl ether (FEVE) are commonly used on aluminum siding and cladding to provide corrosion resistance. Prior to application of the coating, the metal is treated with an anti-corrosion pretreatment and primer. PVDF, FEVE, and other fluoropolymer coatings rely on per- or polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS), also known as forever chemicals. PFAS are a high priority to avoid as many are persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic.[64] Pretreatments may include chromate treatments that rely on hazardous chromium VI. Pretreatments that avoid chromium VI are available. 

While the life cycle impacts of aluminum itself are low relative to other types of siding and cladding, exposures during aluminum production are considered carcinogenic to humans and are a concern for workers during manufacturing.[43]

Within this type prefer: Anodized aluminum, which is ranked light green in this guidance.

Similar to aluminum siding and cladding, fluoropolymer coatings such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and fluoroethylene vinyl ether (FEVE) are commonly applied to steel siding and cladding for corrosion resistance. PVDF coatings rely on per- or polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS), also known as forever chemicals. PFAS are a high priority to avoid as many are persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic.[64] Pretreatments may include chromate treatments that rely on hazardous chromium VI. Pretreatments that avoid chromium VI are available. 

While the life cycle impacts of steel are low relative to other types of siding and cladding, exposures during iron and steel founding are considered carcinogenic to humans and are a concern for workers during manufacturing.[50]

Within this type prefer: Galvanized steel, which is ranked light green in this guidance.

Phenolic or high pressure laminate panels are made with paper and a large amount of plastic resin. The resins, or binders, are typically phenol- and melamine-formaldehyde. The chemicals used to manufacture these formaldehyde-based binders are more hazardous than those used to manufacture polypropylene, and they can impact fenceline communities and workers. 

Formaldehyde-based binders are a type of plastic, and the amount of plastic in phenolic siding is on par with vinyl and polypropylene siding.[90–92] The plastic binders are petrochemicals (chemicals derived from oil or natural gas). Oil and gas extraction and processing releases hazardous pollution that can have significant impacts on the health of people in surrounding communities, and these polluting facilities are disproportionately sited in BIPOC and low-wealth communities contributing to environmental injustice.[3–10] With plastic included in their composition, there is potential for these products to contribute to microplastic pollution at all life cycle stages.[35,83] Microplastics are a concern because there is evidence demonstrating that they accumulate in people’s bodies and emerging research connecting them with adverse health outcomes.[13-16,88] A growing body of research demonstrates that widespread plastic pollution, generated across the plastic life cycle, is impacting earth's ecosystems.[11]

Polycarbonate cladding is often used as an alternative to glass facades where it may be specified due to its higher impact strength, lower weight, and insulative properties. It consists of a polycarbonate core and UV protective layer.

Polycarbonate cladding is mostly plastic with some additives including heat and UV stabilizers. Polycarbonate is manufactured with chemicals that have more known hazards than the chemicals used to make polypropylene.[44] Hazardous chemicals used in manufacturing can impact workers and fenceline communities. Like other types of plastic cladding and siding, polycarbonate cladding is mostly composed of petrochemicals (chemicals derived from oil or natural gas). Oil and gas extraction and processing releases hazardous pollution that can have significant impacts on the health of people in surrounding communities, and these polluting facilities are disproportionately sited in BIPOC and low-wealth communities, contributing to environmental injustice.[3–10]

Additionally, because polycarbonate cladding is plastic, there is potential for it to contribute to microplastic pollution  at all life cycle stages.[35,83] Microplastics are a concern because there is evidence demonstrating that they accumulate in people’s bodies and emerging research connecting them with adverse health outcomes.[13-16,88] A growing body of research demonstrates that widespread plastic pollution, generated across the plastic life cycle, is impacting earth's ecosystems.[11]

PVC or vinyl siding is composed mostly of the plastic polyvinyl chloride. Cellular PVC or cellular composite siding is similar in chemical composition to standard vinyl siding, but it uses a foaming agent and the final product is thicker than standard vinyl siding, which can allow it to mimic the appearance of wood shingles or shakes.[93,94] PVC requires more hazardous chemicals to manufacture than most other types of plastics and has additional end-of-life concerns relative to other plastics, including its potential to form persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic dioxins when burned.[44–46] Many vinyl siding products have a layer of ASA (acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate) capstock fused to the siding, which is manufactured using acrylonitrile, a carcinogen.[95–97]

Vinyl siding consists mostly of petrochemicals (chemicals derived from oil or natural gas).[98] Oil and gas extraction and processing releases hazardous pollution that can have significant impacts on the health of people in surrounding communities, and these polluting facilities are disproportionately sited in BIPOC and low-wealth communities contributing to environmental injustice.[3–10]

Vinyl siding is mostly plastic and there is potential for it to contribute to microplastic pollution at all life cycle stages.[35] Microplastics are a concern because there is evidence demonstrating that they accumulate in people’s bodies and emerging research connecting them with adverse health outcomes.[13-16,88] A growing body of research demonstrates that widespread plastic pollution, generated across the plastic life cycle, is impacting earth's ecosystems.[11]

Polyurethane faux stone, brick, or wood siding has a composition similar to other polyurethane foam products. As a plastic, polyurethane is manufactured with hazardous chemicals that can impact workers and fenceline communities.[77] There is little transparency on the exact content of these products, but several noted inclusion of a flame retardant or meeting flammability standards.[103,104] In order to meet these standards, similar types of polyurethane products typically contain halogenated flame retardants. Halogenated flame retardants are considered a very high priority to avoid because they can be persistent and toxic.[105]

Polyurethane faux stone, brick, or wood products are composed almost entirely of petrochemicals. Oil and gas extraction and processing releases hazardous pollution that can have significant impacts on the health of people in surrounding communities, and these polluting facilities are disproportionately sited in BIPOC and low-wealth communities, contributing to environmental injustice.[3–10]  

They are also mostly plastic so there is potential for them to contribute to microplastic pollution at all life cycle stages.[35,83] Microplastics are a concern because there is evidence demonstrating that they accumulate in people’s bodies and emerging research connecting them with adverse health outcomes.[13-16,88] A growing body of research demonstrates that widespread plastic pollution, generated across the plastic life cycle,  is impacting earth's ecosystems.[11]

Supporting Information

Unless otherwise noted, product content and health hazard information is based on research done by Habitable for Common Product profiles, reports, and blogs. Links to the appropriate resources are provided.

Common Product Records Sourced

Endnotes

[1] Since insulation was not considered in this product guidance, and it is an integral component of exterior insulation finishing systems (EIFS), these systems are not considered in Informed™ rankings. To note: EIFS often utilizes EPS (expanded polystyrene) or XPS (extruded polystyrene) insulation, which are not recommended insulation types. See the Insulation Product Guidance for more details.

[2] OECD. Global Plastics Outlook: Policy Scenarios to 2060; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development: Paris, 2022. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/global-plastics-outlook_aa1edf33-en (accessed 2024-07-26).

[3] Environmental Impacts of Natural Gas. Union of Concerned Scientists. https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/environmental-impacts-natural-gas (accessed 2021-05-21).

[4] Garcia-Gonzales, D. A.; Shonkoff, S. B. C.; Hays, J.; Jerrett, M. Hazardous Air Pollutants Associated with Upstream Oil and Natural Gas Development: A Critical Synthesis of Current Peer-Reviewed Literature. Annu. Rev. Public Health 2019, 40 (1), 283–304. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-043715.

[5] Deziel, N. C. Environmental Injustice and Cumulative Environmental Burdens in Neighborhoods Near Oil and Gas Development: Los Angeles County, California, and Beyond. Am. J. Public Health 2023, 113 (11), 1173–1175. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2023.307422.

[6] Deziel, N. C.; Clark, C. J.; Casey, J. A.; Bell, M. L.; Plata, D. L.; Saiers, J. E. Assessing Exposure to Unconventional Oil and Gas Development: Strengths, Challenges, and Implications for Epidemiologic Research. Curr. Environ. Health Rep. 2022, 9 (3), 436–450. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-022-00358-4.

[7] Gonzalez, D. J. X.; Nardone, A.; Nguyen, A. V.; Morello-Frosch, R.; Casey, J. A. Historic Redlining and the Siting of Oil and Gas Wells in the United States. J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 2022, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-022-00434-9.

[8] Berberian, A. G.; Rempel, J.; Depsky, N.; Bangia, K.; Wang, S.; Cushing, L. J. Race, Racism, and Drinking Water Contamination Risk From Oil and Gas Wells in Los Angeles County, 2020. Am. J. Public Health 2023, 113 (11), 1191–1200. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2023.307374.

[9] Chan, M.; Shamasunder, B.; Johnston, J. E. Social and Environmental Stressors of Urban Oil and Gas Facilities in Los Angeles County, California, 2020. Am. J. Public Health 2023, 113 (11), 1182–1190. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2023.307360.

[10] Donaghy, T.; Jiang, C. Fossil Fuel Racism: How Phasing Out Oil, Gas, and Coal Can Protect Communities; 2021. https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/reports/fossil-fuel-racism/ (accessed 2021-05-21).

[11] Villarrubia-Gómez, P.; Carney Almroth, B.; Eriksen, M.; Ryberg, M.; Cornell., S. E. Plastics Pollution Exacerbates the Impacts of All Planetary Boundaries. One Earth 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2024.10.017.

[12] Teresa McGrath; Rebecca Stamm; Veena Singla; Bethanie Carney Almroth. Buildings’ Hidden Plastic Problem: Policy Brief and Recommendations; Habitable, 2024. https://habitablefuture.org/resources/constructions-hidden-plastic-problem-policy-brief-and-recommendations/ (accessed 2024-11-25).

[13] Weingrill, R. B.; Lee, M.-J.; Benny, P.; Riel, J.; Saiki, K.; Garcia, J.; Oliveira, L. F. A. de M.; Fonseca, E. J. da S.; Souza, S. T. de; D’Amato, F. de O. S.; Silva, U. R.; Dutra, M. L.; Marques, A. L. X.; Borbely, A. U.; Urschitz, J. Temporal Trends in Microplastic Accumulation in Placentas from Pregnancies in Hawai’i. Environ. Int. 2023, 180, 108220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2023.108220.

[14] Project TENDR. Project TENDR Briefing Paper: Protecting the Developing Brains of Children from Plastics and Toxic Chemicals in Plastics; 2024. https://www.akaction.org/publications/project-tendr-plastics-briefing-paper/ (accessed 2024-07-19).

[15] Chartres, N.; Cooper, C. B.; Bland, G.; Pelch, K. E.; Gandhi, S. A.; BakenRa, A.; Woodruff, T. J. Effects of Microplastic Exposure on Human Digestive, Reproductive, and Respiratory Health: A Rapid Systematic Review. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c09524.

[16] Colliver, V. Microplastics in the Air May Be Leading to Lung and Colon Cancers. University of California San Francisco. December 18, 2024. https://www.ucsf.edu/news/2024/12/429161/microplastics-air-may-be-leading-lung-and-colon-cancers (accessed 2024-12-20).

[17] de Haan, W. P.; Quintana, R.; Vilas, C.; Cózar, A.; Canals, M.; Uviedo, O.; Sanchez-Vidal, A. The Dark Side of Artificial Greening: Plastic Turfs as Widespread Pollutants of Aquatic Environments. Environ. Pollut. 2023, 334, 122094. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122094.

[18] Paruta, P.; Pucino, M.; Boucher, J. Plastic Paints the Environment; EA - Environmental Action, 2022. https://www.e-a.earth/plastic-paints-the-environment/ (accessed 2024-01-03).

[19] Lassen, C.; Warming, M.; Kjølholt, J.; Novichkov, B.; Strand, J.; Feld, L.; Bach, L. Survey of Polystyrene Foam (EPS and XPS) in the Baltic Sea; 2019. https://www.helcom.fi/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Survey-of-polystyrene-foam-EPS-and-XPS-in-the-Baltic-Sea.pdf.

[20] Gao, G. H. Y.; Helm, P.; Baker, S.; Rochman, C. M. Bromine Content Differentiates between Construction and Packaging Foams as Sources of Plastic and Microplastic Pollution. ACS EST Water 2023, 3 (3), 876–884. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsestwater.2c00628.

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[98] Take-back programs exist for vinyl siding, but industry-wide data suggests that most vinyl siding is landfilled or incinerated at its end of life.[ 99 ] Some vinyl siding may include pre-consumer cutoff scrap from manufacturing.[ 100–102 ] A small percentage of recycled content may also come from post-consumer sources.[ 101 ] Like virgin vinyl products, recycled vinyl products have life cycle concerns including the potential to release microplastics throughout their life and the potential to form dioxins when burned. Vinyl siding with recycled content is still not preferred.

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Last updated: January 14, 2025